individual,
answers to this question, perhaps by writing their responses down on paper. This avoids students simply answering along the lines of the previous speaker. All responses should then be collected and at least some of them read out; there should be variety, which can generate discussion.

Diverse societies (page 127)

To what extent is your home-country environment is diverse, in terms of ethnic groupings, different language groups and multiple religions? How have businesses responded to this diversity in terms of employment and consumer products? How would you respond to those who argue that catering for cultural subgroups is socially divisive, and that assimilation to mainstream culture will go further in building social cohesion?

Answers to the three questions depend on the student’s home country, most particularly the first question.

The second question is more straightforward and offers interesting examples. Take the case of Al Jazeera (Strategic Crossroads 4.2), for instance. The Arab world speaks the same language, albeit with different dialects, and generally has the same religion. But that does not make the entire Arab world a culturally monolithic group, as the example of Iraq, with its three broad segments (e.g., Shia, Sunni and Kurdish), clearly shows. The Al Jazeera English channel has focused on the mainstream English-speaking audience, therefore, rather than simply Arab viewers, with its characteristic approach of balanced and diverse perspectives. From a business point of view, it has faced challenges, as the large US cable operators refused to carry it. However, it has been accessible online, and has online subscribers. As a business, it has emerged as one of the most well known Arab brands.

The student could give reasons for adopting any of these three policies.

The first policy is probably the least desirable, and also unrealistic. Agency interpreters brought in for specific transactions move from job to job and will not be familiar with the business background.

The second policy is possibly the best, although there are limited numbers of genuinely bilingual people. To justify hiring them as employees, they would probably need to have functional roles in addition to their linguistic skills.

Applying cultural theories
(page 133)

Consider the national cultural environment with which you are most familiar. To what extent do Hofstede's cultural dimensions paint a helpful picture of the national culture? What are the limitations of this, and other, culture theories?

The answers to the first two questions depend on the student’s national culture. The third question invites critical discussion. Here are some of the limitations:

• Hofstede’s theory is based on research which is now dated.

• The use of dimensions or categories is somewhat artificial – cultures cannot be dissected so cleanly, as each facet is interdependent with the others.

• Analyzing national cultures according to a theory assumes it is static, when in fact cultures are constantly changing.

• Conclusions about cultures based on quantifying responses to questionnaires is problematic in the context of data which are essentially more qualitative than quantitative.

• All procedures governed strictly by the rule book. Western individualist cultures, such as the US, would have this characteristic, but mainly in large bureaucratic organizations.

• Open, relaxed communication among employees of all levels. This characterizes national cultures with low power distance. The Scandinavian countries are examples.

• Emphasis on strong corporate identity, reinforced with highly visible symbols. More collectivist cultures are likely to have organizations which subsume the individual in a strong corporate identity. Japanese companies are an example. Company rituals reinforce the feeling of identity.

• Hierarchical, with detailed job descriptions. The job-oriented culture is more likely to be found in the individualist, low-context cultures, such as the US and UK, in which contractual relationships predominate over social relationships. Hierarchies define each position precisely, so that there is continuity in the performance of the tasks even when the people change.

The urban-rural divide (page 142)

Developing economies typically exhibit an urban-rural divide, as salaried work in the cities surges forward, while agricultural employment shrinks, leading to poverty in rural areas. What steps can be taken by governments to bring about more even development?

This is a problem in many developing and emerging economies. What governments can do:

• Encourage businesses to set up in rural areas, both local firms and those from outside the region. Much of the labor in cities is provided by migrant workers from the countryside. If there is work available near to home, this is a viable alternative. A drawback is that roads and other infrastructure are poor in rural areas – hence the next recommendation.

• Invest in infrastructure such as roads in rural areas.

• Invest in education and training in rural areas, so that workers from these areas are able to take jobs in other sectors.

Cultural diversity (page 148)

In what ways can business combine business success and social development in minority communities, either indigenous or immigrant?

Minority communities often lag behind in economic development and suffer from high unemployment. The high levels of unemployment do not reflect unwillingness to work but few opportunities. Employment in small family businesses, in which the native language is the main medium of communication, is typical in such communities, but these offer few jobs (mainly to the family) and little prospect of moving on to careers in the society.

Businesses which invest in these communities can offer regular salaried employment, training and career development. They will be sensitive to the cultural needs of workers – for example, Muslim workers. In immigrant communities, they can offer language classes at modest expense for both workers and their families – these can be helpful for the business, and also help families to become more able to cope in the new country.

Culture and globalization
(page 151)

Weigh up the arguments that cultural differences are fading away against the arguments that cultural differences are still important in a globalized world. Which side in this debate do you feel is more accurate, and why?

The globalization argument: As consumer society spreads, lifestyles among the world’s people, especially the new urban middle classes, are converging. Their spending power makes them influential in consumer markets which MNEs are targeting for future growth. The rise of global brands, global products and worldwide distribution networks reinforce the convergence in consumer markets. As lifestyles become similar, national differences and the influence of family background gradually fade away. The rise of the English language globally is indicative of this cultural globalization.